Leadership competencies and attitudes for success in globalization

Leadership competencies and attitudes for success in globalization Understanding of international interaction is essential for transnational organizations to work effectively in todays global business environment. The level of this understanding is related to possession of international competencies within an organization (Gupta and Govindarajan, 2002). Although the need to develop leaders with adequate competencies has become obvious in recent years (Adler and Bartholomew,1992; Brake et al., 1995; Brake, 1997; Morrison, 2000; This source has not been included in the reference list Bonnstetter, 1999; Suutari, 2002), there is still a significant gap between the international human resource requirements of global strategies and their realization (Adler and Bartholomew, 1992; Engle et al., 2001, Morrison et al., 1999). The process of identifying core competencies usually entails having employees identify core competencies by scanning and assessing company-critical resources, capabilities, and competencies three factors commonly referred to as associated concepts. In the identification process these concepts often become conceptually and empirically merged, something that occurs in strategic management research too, when these associated concepts are defined interchangeably. For example, capabilities and competencies are defined interchangeably by Spanos and Prastacos (2004). Furthermore, diversity and complexity increase in a domestic working environment as business operations become more international. The dynamics, complexity and diversity now characteristic of global environment are diffusing into the domestic environment (Gregersen et al., 1998; Harvey and Buckley, 2002) making increasing demands on management and leadership competencies at all organizational levels. Therefore, increasing under standing of different aspects of globalization and interrelationships of various factors and their changes will help organizations to meet the new challenges brought by globalization, whether their primary operation environment is domestic, international or global. Employees need to learn about culture and cross-cultural communication if they are to work effectively with minorities within their own society or with foreigners encountered at home or abroad (Harris and Moran, 1987, p. 56). The development of global competencies should be based on the global business strategy which determines what kind of global presence is desirable, how many and what types of international or global jobs, projects, task forces, and other types of interactions exist (McCall and Hollenbeck, 2002). Competency development process should start from an analysis of the dynamics of the global business environment and the core competencies, continuing to identifying the profiles of necessary human resources and ending with identification of necessary competencies for specific jobs/functions. Once the specific leader competencies have been identified, the next step is to build bench strength effectively (Brake, 1997; Gregersen et al., 1998). The other assumption is that global leaders have just developed their (general) competencies into a higher (global) level. Bartlett and Ghoshal (1992), and Baruch (2002) argue that there is no such thing as a global manager, or any universal criteria for gl obal managers. Instead, Bartlett and Ghoshal see global management as being a task of a network of specialists including business managers, country managers and functional managers.Yet, they suggest that the top executives are the leaders who manage the complex interactions between the three types of managers, and they must understand the strategic importance of each specialist. The majority of the research on international assignments and positions has been research about expatriates. Some authors have stated explicitly their focus being on global managers/leaders and yet, discuss issues related to the target country such as cultural distance. However, a global leader (or manager) is not necessarily an expatriate, and vice versa. The value of an expatriate assignment as a major developmental experience for those pursuing global career is widely acknowledged. Therefore, and because of scarcity of pure global leadership literature, expatriate literature as well as general leadership literature is relevant also when studying global leaders. Overall, the previous research on global leadership competencies has been dispersed and more synergistic research is needed, together with a more comprehensive theoretical framework, to understand the processes and interactions underlying the development of a global leadership potential (Tiina, 2004). This paper attempts to take a step towards such framework, Secondary data was collected based on the finding of published papers, articles and books perior studeis , the world wide web , existing global leadership and other related literature, these data was reviewd and disscussed to combine findings and suggestions provided in previous literature in a more integrative framework of global leadership competencies and attitudes. The structure of the paper is as follows; The terminology used in the international/global leadership ,literature is reviewed and discussed first and the more integrated framework was described in the chapters that followed. The results identefied 12 competanceie as an assessment and intepret tools to provide an opportunity for experts to reflect on the structure of their company or organisation and to rate the CEO, corporate staff, subsidiary general manager and staff, as well as all employees in general. then indicated whether the competency is essential, use ful or not necessary for the CEO, corporate staff, subsidiary general manager and staff, and all employees, in order for the transformational goal to be realised and to make globalisation work. Litreture review The main outcomes of previous research Recent research supports the idea that there are a limited number of key competencies, over and above the contextual ones, that predict successful behavior in a global environment (Jordan and Cartwright, 1998; Gregersen et al., 1998). As was already mentioned earlier, most of the previous research regarding international competencies has been done on and among expatriates, but much of this research is also relevant when studying global leaders. Harris and Moran (1987, pp. 226-227) review of earlier literature produced nearly 70 dimensions of overseas success of which 21 are given priority as being more important for foreign employment. However, this listing focuses on filling specific expatriate positions, including many practical and contextual items such as adaptability of spouse, promotability, interest in host culture etc. Harris and Moran (1987) focus on cross-cultural interaction and suggest that the main outcomes of cross-cultural training can also be used as selecting criteri a for overseas service. These are empathy, openness, persistence, sensitivity to intercultural factors, respect for others, role flexibility, tolerance of ambiguity, and a two-way communication skill. Srinivas (1995) defines eight components of global mindset which form the base for competencies needed to meet the challenges organizations/individuals face especially when entering a global environment. The components are: curiosity and concern with context, acceptance of complexity and its contradictions, diversity consciousness and sensitivity, seeking opportunity in surprises and uncertainties, faith in organizational processes, focus on continual improvement, extended time perspective, and systems thinking. Rhinesmith (1996) has identified six characteristics of global mindset that lead to global competencies. These are: bigger, broader picture (leading to managing competitiveness), balancing contradictory demands and needs (managing complexity), trust in networked processes, rather than in hierarchical s tructures (managing adaptability), valuing multicultural teamwork and diversity (managing teams), flow with change/seeing change as opportunity (managing uncertainty), and expanding knowledge and skills, being open to surprises (managing learning). In the same line, Rosen (2000) maintains that globally literate leaders possess four global literacies. These include personal, social, business, and cultural literacy. Jordan and Cartwright (1998) maintain that the key to international success lies in a mixture of personality characteristics and managerial competencies. Managerial competencies include relational abilities, cultural sensitivity, linguistic ability, and ability to handle stress. Conner (2000) also identifies a number of skills and capabilities needed by leaders working in a global company, organizing them under six headings: business savvy, ability to use personal influence, global perspective, strong character, ability to motivate people, and entrepreneurial behavior. Mumford et al. (2000) have defined five categories of leadership skills for the changing world. In addition to social judgment skills, social skills, and creative problem solving skills leaders need four types of knowledge: knowledge related to task, business, organization and people. Resources and the process of identifying core competencies usually entails having employees core capabilities by scanning and assessing company resources, capabilities, and competencies ,three factors coming referred to as associated concepts .in the identification process these concepts o ften become conceptually and empirically merged, Something that occurs in strategic management research too. For example, capabilities and competencies are defined by Spanos and Prastcos (2004) and capabilities by Peteraf and Bergen (2003) and Ray et al. (2004), and skill, competence. Other scholars, however, have more usefully distinguished these associated concepts (Branzei and Thornhill, 2006; Savory, 2006; Ljungquist, 2008). Were are the first three items? The fifth item is willingness to exercise these skills. Caligiuri and Di Santo (2001) have approached the desired competencies from a company perspective and identified eight desired developmental dimensions for global leadership programs: ability to transact business in another country, ability to change leadership style based on the situation, knowledge of the companys worldwide business structure, knowledge of professional contacts worldwide, knowledge of international business issues, openness, flexibility, and ethnocentri sm (getting away from it). Spreitzer et al. (1997) focused on finding candidates for those leadership programs, individuals possessing global leadership potential. They have identified 14 dimensions or themes underlying success as an international executive, making a clear distinction between the end-state skills and the ability to learn from experience. Jehad (2009) identified that the core competencies had a significant impact on competitive advantage. Goh (2010) examines how to improve the quality of products and services in the age of globalization reviwing the traditional concepts and the six segma framework, ilustrates how paradigram shifts must affect to achieve real gains in quality. The competencies required for globalisation The above disscussions and further review of relavent litreture is indicated (12) organizational and individual competencies required to make globalisation work have been drawn up (Fig.1). These competencies will be described and developed in this and the following three chapters.these competencies are described into the below table as a finding of such review and also in the dissucssions follows. Attitudes Possesses a global mindset Works as an equal with persons of diverse backgrounds Has a long-term orientation Leadership Facilitates organisational -change Creates learning systems Motivates employees to excellence lnteraction Negotiates and approachesb coflicts in a collaborative mode Manages skillfully the foreign deployment cycle Leads and participates effectively in multicultural teams Culture Understands their own cultural values and assumptions Accurately profiles the organizational and national culture of others Avoids culture mistakes and behaves in an appropriate manner in other countries Fig. 1. Twelve organizational and individual competencies (source: developed by the authors) Studies conducted with companies and individuals have demonstrated that organisations and people can successfully change. Self-initiated change (I want to learn this skill) and professionally facilitated change have both been successful. How change occurs is not well understood, and this report is not intended to answer the question of how organisations and individuals change. Our purpose is to identify the competencies and to suggest strategies for acquiring them. Conceptual model of study: Figure 2 below summarises the 12 external environmental factors, leading to globalisation and the 12 organisational or individual competencies required to succeed in globalisation within the organization. External Forces Economies ofscale New and evolving markets Global sourcing Reduced tariffs/ customs barriers and tax advantages Homogeneous technical standards Loweredglobal transportation costs Increased telecommunication options at reduced costs Trend toward homogeneous demand for products Competition from International Competitors Custome stratey changes fromdomestic-only to global Exchange rate exposure Accelerating rate of technological change GLOBAL organizational competencies Vision Strategy Structure Competencies required to make organization work Attitudes à ¢-  Possesses a global mindset Has the ability to work as equals with persons of diverse background Has a long-term orientation Leadership Facilitates organizational change Creates learning systems Motivates employees to excellence Interaction Negotiates and approaches conflicts in a collaborative mode Manages skillfully the foreign deployment cycle Leads and participates effectively in multicultural teams Culture Understands their own culture values and assumptions Accurately profiles organizational culture and national culture of others Avoids cultural mistakes and behaves in a manner that demonstrates knowledge and respect for the way of conducting business in other countries Fig. 2. Globalisation forces and competencies (source: developed by the authors) Competency 1. Process a global mindset Attitudes are learned and therefore can be unlearned. A global mindset is an attitude: it is not knowledge or information. We learn to be ethnocentric, and we can learn to be global in our perspective. Mindsets Mindset is a word that rarely is used in daily conversation. Websters Encyclopedia Unabridged Dictionary of the English Language, containing over 250 000 entries, does not list it. A smaller Websters dictionary defines mindset as a fixed mental attitude. (Fishers, 2000) excellent book Mindsets: The Role of Culture and Perception in International Relations demonstrates the importance of possessing a global mindset to succeed in the globalisation process. Individuals working in foreign countries share similar experiences in overseas assignments and must not only meet the requirements of their work assignments, but also be able to adjust to unfamiliar attitudes and psychological predispositions. They must function within the expectations of the host culture. In other words, they must work across contrasting mindsets [which] reflect differences in national experience and culture, according to (Fisher, 2000). To date, no comprehensive studies have been conducted on the ways in which contrasting mindsets affect international business relationships and transactions. The education of most managers has provided only hard business skills, such as engineering, finance and strategic planning. Fisher suggests the necessity of providing global managers with additional training in the social sciences, as it is not sufficient to provide a person only with facts and information about unfamiliar cultural practices. Global mindsets Rhinesmith (1996) correctly postulates that a global mindset is a requirement of a global manager who will guide institutions and organizations into the future. He defines a mindset as: a predisposition to see the world in a particular way that sets boundaries and provides explanations for why things are the way they are, while at the same time establishing guidance for ways in which we should behave. In other words, a mindset is a filter through which we look at the world. Rhinesmith states that people with global mindsets approach the world in a number of particular ways. Specifically they: Look for the big picture; that is, they look for multiple possibilities for any event or occurrence-they arent satisfied with the obvious. Understand that the rapidly changing, interdependent world in which we are living is indeed complex. Are process-oriented; in our experience this is the most important dimension, and the one that is most lacking in individuals who are not globally oriented. Consider diversity as a resource and know how to work effectively in multicultural teams. Are not uncomfortable with change or ambiguity. Are open to new experiences. Ethnocentricity vs geocentricity Contrasted to the individual with global mindset is the one who is ethnocentric. Ethnocentricity is defined by the Random House Dictionary as: Belief in the inherent superiority of ones own group and culture; it may be accompanied by feelings of contempt for those others who do not belong; it tends to look down upon those considered as foreign; it views and measures alien cultures and groups in terms of ones own culture. A framework developed to illustrating ethnocentrism (Fig. 3). Not only individuals, but also organisations can be ethnocentric (This source has not been included in the reference list Stephen Weiss and William G. Stripp; 1993). The ethnocentric organizations tend to use home-country personnel in key positions throughout the world, believing they are more intelligent and capable than foreign managers (Harris and Moran, 2003). Attitudes toward themselves and their groups Attitudes toward others See themselves as virtuous and See their standards of value as universal and intrinsically true See themselves as strong Believe outgroup is inferior superior Believe outgroup is weak Distrust outgroups Fig. 3. Framework of ethnocentrism (source: ) In this case, superiority is not equal to nationality, and all groups can contribute to the organisations effectiveness.The culture shock inventory, was designed to measure individual ethnocentrism, or the degree to which individuals perceived their value system to be appropriate for others. Attitude change With globalisation, contact between persons from different cultures increases. What happens when this occurs? Do individuals become more global or more ethnocentric? Following a review of the literature on intergroup contact, This source has not been included in the reference list Amir concluded that the direction of attitude change, following contact with people who are different, depends largely on the conditions under which the contact has taken place He indicates that there are favorable conditions, which reduce prejudice, and unfavorable ones, which may increase prejudice (Kenneth, 1974). The favorable condition of equal status as a factor in reducing prejudice was reported by This source has not been included in the reference list Allport. He pointed out that, for contact between groups to be an element in reducing prejudice, it must be based on equal status contact between majority and minority groups in the pursuit of common goals. Organisations that are globalising must have common goals Competency 2: Works as an equal with persons from diverse backgrounds This section focuses on working women, since the number of women in the workforce worldwide has dramatically increased since 1950. We are fully aware that diversity in the workforces of many countries is also reflected in a significant increase in the numbers of Third and Fourth World immigrants, the physically challenged, senior citizens and others. Generally, the following workforce trends have been identified (Moran and Harris, 2003): By the year 2000, women will comprise just under 50 per cent of the UK workforce. By the year 2000, non-whites will make up 20 per cent of the UK workforce. Greater numbers of immigrants are coming to the United Stares than at any time since World War 1. A greater portion of the US workforce is middle-aged, and the workforce is gradually getting older. The demographics of the workforce in most countries are changing. This is reflected in the development of seminars and workshops on cultural diversity in the United States and other countries. Five years ago these seminars were unheard of, or else, when conducted, they were under the rubric of affirmative action.* What does the note mean? Competency 3. Has a long-term orientation There are many reasons why companies have not been successful in competing in the global marketplace. One of these reasons is shorttermism. Dick Ferry, the president and co-founder of Korn/Ferry, addresses this issue: Corporate America may talk, on an intellectual level, about what itll take to succeed in the twenty-first century, but when it gets right down to decision making, all that matters is the next quarterly earnings report. Thats whats driving much of the system. With that mind-set, everything else becomes secondary to the ability to deliver the next quarterly earnings push-up. Were on a treadmill. Competency 4. Facilitates organisational change This section will cover two main points: what some academics and business people say about organisational change, and (2) how they recommend managing these changes. We present several perspectives, as it is our belief that no one individual has all the answers, strategies or methods to facilitate change. Competency 5. Creates learning systems This source has not been included in the reference list Peter Senge said it best in his book, The Fifth Discipline: The organizations that will truly excel in the future will be the organisations that discover how to tap peoples commitment and capacity to learn at all levels in an organisation. Competency 6. Motivates employees to excellence The pronoun test: An operative word in UK organisations for the past several years is ,empowerment. Our employees are empowered, says an executive from a different Fortune 500 company, this one thriving in turbulent times. Perhaps an important difference between the two organisations may be determined: For six months now Ive been visiting the workplaces of America, administering a simple test. 1 call it the pronoun test. 1 ask front-line workers a few general questions about the company. If the answers 1 get back describe the company in terms like they, or them, 1 know its one kind of company. If the answers are put in terms like we, or us 1 know its a different kind of company. It doesnt much matter whats said about the company. Even a statement like, they aim for high quality here suggests a workplace that hasnt yet made the leap into true high performance. It isnt yet achieving ever higher levels of quality, productivity and service. Only we companies can do this (Rhinesmith, 1993). Competency 7. Negotiates and approaches conflicts in a collaborative mode The material describing this competency is drawn from many excellent sources but primarily from the managing cultural difference: How to negotiate with japans? Managing cultural synergy and developing the global organization (Black et al., 1999) To make globalisation work, we need to negotiate and approach conflicts collaboratively. Skillful international business negotiators know more than, and behave (act) differently from non-skillful negotiators. Competency 8. Manages skillfully the foreign deployment cycle It has been estimated that American corporations and government spend about $50 billion each year in education and training. The goal is to improve the performance of the individual, thus enhancing the operating performance of a company or the government. jay Duffy, manager, employee development, for a division of a large global company, believes training may be a solution if one of the following four situations exists (Hershock, 1993): 1. A gap exists between the skill level and the current position requirement. 2. The tasks of a present position need to be performed differently. 3. The job has changed or will change. 4. Future positions may require different or additional skills. The gap between job requirements and the skill of the employee was demonstrated in research conducted and reported by Kathleen Miller (Conference Board, 1992) among others. Competency 9. Leads and participates effectively in multicultural teams High performance teams, team work, worldwide global product teams and other words expressing similar ideas are commonplace in the management literature today. Stories of teams producing remarkable accomplishments are well known. Well functioning teams can increase productivity and creativity. However, functioning skillfully on a team is a learned skill. The Conference Board addresses the problem: The CEO must be fully committed to globalisation and must actively and persistently drive the globalisation process. Chief executive commitment is more important than international experience and background. It is essential that the CEO understands the issues (e.g. culture, human resources, empowerment) and translates commitment into actions. Words alone will not drive the process. Second, a core team of managers with an international background must be available in the organization before anything can happen. These managers must bring international culture and international experience to energise the globalisation process (Suutari, 2002). The process of building an international team large enough to permeate the entire organisation is long and arduous. It requires years of training, attention to recruiting, career development, and job rotations through foreign assignments. The role of multicultural teams in the globalisation process is well recognised. Competency 10. Understands their own culture, values and assumptions Know thyself Socrates. Global managers from one country have to work and negotiate with their global counterparts regularly. A common requirement is that they must each be able to communicate effectively and work with individuals who have been socialised in a different cultural environment, and whose customs, values, lifestyles, beliefs, management practices and other important aspects of their personal and professional lives are different. A European executive during a personal conversation said, I cant think of any situation in my 25 years of international experience when international business was made easier because people from more than one country were participating. (Fisher, 2000). A global manager must be aware of the many beliefs and values that underlie his or her own countrys business practices, management techniques and strategies. Competency 11. Accurately profiles the organisational culture and national culture of others Corporate culture is the way of life of an organisation the recent studies of many large organizations, they concluded Corporate culture can have a significant impact on a firms long-term economic performance. Corporate culture will probably be an even more important factor in determining the success or failure of firms in the next decade. Corporate cultures that inhibit strong long-term financial performance are not rare; they develop easily, even in firms that are full of reasonable and intelligent people. Although tough to change, corporate cultures can be made more performance-enhancing (Adler, 1992) Competency 12. Avoids cultural mistakes and behaves in a manner that demonstrates knowledge of and respect for other countries Skillful international managers have learned to see the world differently and to understand the way others manage and do business. This implies that there is no single way of doing anything and that no one culture is perfect or complete in all aspects. Successful communication with other cultures means not judging customs, rituals or ways of doing business as ridiculous, or inferior to ones own. A Swedish executive of a large multinational corporation expressed it this way: We Swedes are so content with the quality of our products and the Swedish way, that we forget that 99 per cent of the rest of the world isnt Swedish. (Pritchett, Pound,1992). Implications The major aim of this paper was to review global leadership competency frameworks suggested in previous literature and to build a more integrative competency framework to be used in future research. Some general issues related to global leadership research were discussed first, and the more integrated framework was described in the chapters that followed. Despite the large number of studies carried out on critical success factors for international (in most cases expatriate) assignments there are only very few based on empirical research, attempting to test the validity of different items and the reliability of different measures. Results from previous studies accumulate into a long list of competencies characterized by only minor semantic differences of a much smaller number of key competencies (see also Jordan and Cartwright, 1998). Practically no longitudinal research has been reported that would validate the relevancy of different competencies defined. As a result, there is little agreement among researchers on the definition of global competence, its antecedents or outcomes. From human resource development perspective, this framework may provide the base for planning international training activities where the fundamental questions to be answered is: in what type of competencies development is needed for, knowledge, skills and abilities, or other characteristics? Competencies have been defined with terms describing certain personal traits, behaviors, skills, values, and knowledge, and many existing frameworks are combinations of these. In existing research, different types of dimensions have often been mixed and treated as equals. A certain trait in one framework is replaced with corresponding behavior in another. Generally, selection of relevant competencies has generated much argument since the relevance of competencies is commonly seen to vary with the task and organization involved McBeath (1990), Baruch (2002), Evans et al. (1989). In this paper global leadership competencies are seen as those universal qualities that enable indi

Aaron Beam and the Health South Fraud Essay

In reference to the Aaron Beam and the HealthSouth Fraud case in our text Velasquez (2012), the following questions from the text and my answers to these questions are provided as requested. 1. Which of the â€Å"obstacles to moral behavior do you see at work in Aaron Beam’s behavior and thinking? In Scrushy’s? The obstacles I see in Aaron Beam’s behavior are â€Å"Rationalizing Our Actions and Displacement of Responsibility†. Rationalizing his actions is supported by comments he made in reference to the actions he had or was about to take in supporting his employer. Aaron Beam stated in Velasquez (2012), â€Å"He described the move to himself as aggressive accounting but definitely not fraudulent† (p 68). In the continual cooking of the books, each time Beam was press or directed by Scrushy to do so. Aaron Beam possibly considers that to be his get out of jail free card, by pointing the finger back at his employer, as displacement of his responsib ility. We see clearly what he was thinking in Velasquez (2012), as he â€Å"felt it was technically within the bounds of accounting rules and investors would be sophisticated enough to understand what was happening† (page 68). This would relate to â€Å"Biased Theories about Others†, as he believed this group of investors was sophisticated. You cannot help but think he also felt secretly an investor(s) would question their actions and bring them to account for their actions considering the situation he was in with his employer. The obstacles I see in Richard Scrushy’s behavior are â€Å"Disregarding or Distorting Harm, Euphemistic Labeling, and Rationalizing Our Actions†. In reference to â€Å"Disregarding or Distorting Harm† based on the belief he was doing a good thing by providing rehabilitation therapy to patients at lower costs than regular hospitals, one could surmise he found doing whatever it takes to succeed he would do, all on the backs of his em ployees, of which as CEO he could discredit at will. We could also, along these lines consider â€Å"Euphemistic Labeling† as he was not above lying as interpreted by the various financial reports produced to make the company look more profitable under the veil of only business. He himself would feel pressure in 1996 as they could not meet second quarter projections. He would once again ask Aaron Beam to cook the books, or the company would face financial ruin. Scrushy rationalizes this away by saying in Velasquez, (2012), â€Å"If they could just get through the quarter, then everything would be okay† (p 69). We see clearly what he was thinking as up until now he felt everything was going his way; just one more time let the dice roll. This would relate to â€Å"Biased Theories about Oneself†, as he is very confident in his abilities, so what random event could he not control, after all he was the third highest paid CEO in the America; he had to be doing it right. 2. Explain how Aaron Beam might have used the â€Å"loyal agent’s argument† to defend his actions. Do you think that Aaron Beam’s situation the â€Å"loyal agent’s argument† might have been valid? Explain. Under the â€Å"loyal agent’s argume nt† Aaron Beam’s defense would be that Scrushy had ordered him to manipulate the accounting records or more specifically the general ledgers. He was seen as reluctant to comply, but was pressured by Scrushy and a bit intimidated by him to the point at times of fear. I do not believe Aaron Beam could have actually used the â€Å"loyal agent’s argument†. The information shows Scrushy and Beam knew as stated in Velasquez (2012), â€Å"From the beginning Scrushy and Beam both knew the company had to appear profitable to satisfy investors and lenders and to later succeed in issuing and selling company stock to the public† (page 68). Therefore, Beam had to know Scrushy would be asking or ordering him to make it happen. Based on Beam’s reluctances, it could be argued he knew this to be wrong but did it anyway. 3. In terms of Kohlberg’s views on moral development, at what stage of moral development would you place Aaron Beam? Explain. At what stage would you place Richard Scrushy? In terms of Kohlberg’s views I believe Aaron Beam’s moral development would be a Level Two Stage Three. My rational for this is he knows right and wrong both conventionally and what the law says. He exhibits this by his initial reluctance to support Scruchy’s decision to manipulate the general ledgers. He also is in awe of Scruchy, and appears to want to please him as a person in authority, and shows his loyalty to after all Scruchy picked Beam to start the company with. In terms of Kohlberg’s views I believe Richard Scruchy’s moral development would be a Level One Stage Two. My rational for this is it is all about him; he is self-centered and looks at things only from his own point of view. To support this we only have to look at his life style, he has been married three times, lives extravagantly, while charitable it appears he threw money around for self-recognition. The pleasures he gains by all of this gives him reason to assume he is right in his own mind. To support this further his own employees describe him as a dictator, cult-like figure, and a great motivator. This would indicate he was resourceful in getting what he wanted by any means necessary, much like a spoiled child. Reference Velasquez, M. G. (2012). Business ethics, concepts and cases. (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Chapter Outline Chapter 2

Chapter Outline Chapter 2 I. Developmental theories and the issues they raise A. The Importance of Theories 1. Guides the collection of new information a. what is most important to study b. what can be hypothesized or predicted c. how it should be studied B. Qualities of a Good Theory 1. Internally consistent– its different parts are not contradictory 2. Falsifiable– generates testable hypotheses 3. Supported by data– describes, predicts, and explains human development C. Four Major Theories (psychoanalytic, learning, cognitive developmental, contextual/systems) D. Nature/Nurture 1. Nature– genetic/biological predisposition . Nurture– emphasis on experience/environmental impact E Goodness/Badness of Human Nature 1. Hobbes– children are selfish and bad and society must teach them to behave in a civilized way 2. Rousseau– children are innately good and society must not interfere with innate goodness 3. Locke– child born neither go od nor bad, but like a tabula rasa or â€Å"blank slate† F. Activity and Passivity 1. Activity– control over one’s development 2. Passive– product of forces beyond one’s control (environmental or biological) G. Continuity/Discontinuity 1. Continuity– gradual change (small steps) 2.Discontinuity– abrupt change 3. Qualitative or quantitative change a. qualitative– changes in a degree b. quantitative– change in kind c. developmental stages part of discontinuity approach H. Universality/Context-Specificity 1. Universality– developmental change common to everyone 2. Context-specific– developmental changes vary by individual/culture II. Freud: Psychoanalytic theory A. Sigmund Freud: Viennese Physician and Founder of Psychoanalytic Theory 1. Emphasis on motive and emotions of which we are unaware 2.. Theory less influential than in the past B. Instincts and Unconscious Motives 1.Instincts– inborn biological forces that motivate behavior 2. Unconscious motivation– instinctive and inner force influences beyond our awareness/control 3. Emphasis on nature (biological instincts) C. Id, Ego, and Superego 1. Id a. all psychic energy contained here b. basic biological urges c. impulsive d. seeks immediate gratification 2. Ego a. rational side of personality b. ability to postpone pleasure 3. Superego a. internalized moral standards b. perfection principle (adhere to moral standards) 4. Id, ego and superego conflict common/inevitable 5. Problems arise when level of psychic energy unevenly distributed D.Psychosexual Development 1. Importance of libido– sex instinct’s energy shifts body locations 2. Five stages of psychosexual development a. oral stage b. anal stage c. phallic stage d. latency period e. genital stage 3. Conflict of id and social demands leads to ego’s defense mechanisms defense mechanisms– unconscious coping mechanisms of the ego i. fixationâ⠂¬â€œ Development arrested at early stage ii. regression– Retreat to earlier stage 4. Phallic stage– Oedipus and Electra complexes (incestuous desire) resolve by identifying with same-sex parent and incorporating parent’s values into the super ego 5.Genital stage– experienced during puberty a. conflict and distance from parents b. greater capacity to love and have children in adulthood c. teen pregnancy due to inability to manage sexual urges because of childhood experiences E. Strengths and Weaknesses 1. Difficult to test and ambiguous 2. Weak support for specific aspects of the theory (e. g. , sexual seduction by parents) 3. Greater support for broad ideas a. unconscious motivation b. importance of early experience, especially parenting III. Erikson: Neo-Freudian Psychoanalytic Theory A. Neo-Freudians– Important Disciples of Psychoanalytic Theory 1.Notable neo-Freudians: Jung, Horney, Sullivan, Anna Freud 2. Erikson is most important life span ne o-Freudian theorist 3. Erikson’s differences with Freud a. less emphasis on sexual and more on social influences b. less emphasis on id, more on rational ego c. more positive view of human nature d. more emphasis on developmental changes in adulthood B. Psychosocial Development 1. Resolution of eight major psychosocial crises a. trust versus mistrust– key is general responsiveness of caregiver b. autonomy versus shame– terrible twos c. initiative versus guilt– preschool sense of autonomy d. ndustry versus inferiority– elementary age sense of mastery e. identity versus role confusion– adolescence acquisition of identity f. intimacy versus isolation– young adult commitment g. generativity versus stagnation– middle age sense of having produced something meaningful h. integrity versus despair– elderly sense of life meaning and success 2. Personality strengths â€Å"ego virtues† developed during stages 3. Stage develop ment due to biological maturation and environmental demands 4. Teen pregnancy explained as due to weak ego or super ego (management of sexual urges rooted in early childhood) C.Strengths and Weaknesses 1. Its emphases on rational, adaptive nature and social influences easier to accept 2. Captures some central development issues 3. Influenced thinking about adolescence and beyond 4. Like Freud, vague and difficult to test 5. Provides description, but not adequate explanation of development IV. Learning theories A. Watson: Classical Conditioning 1. Emphasis on behavioral change in response to environmental stimuli 2. Behaviorism– belief that only observed behavior should be studied 3. Rejected psychoanalytic theory and explained Freud using learning principles 4.Conducted classical conditioning research with colleague Rosalie Rayner Watson and Rayner condition infant â€Å"Albert† to fear rat a. loud noise was unconditioned (unlearned) stimulus b. crying (fear) was uncon ditioned (unlearned) response c. white rat became conditioned (learned) stimulus producing conditioned response of crying after it was paired with loud noise 5. Classical conditioning involved when children learn to â€Å"love† caring parents 6. Reject stage conceptualization of development 7. Learning is learning B. Skinner: Operant Conditioning 1.In operant (instrumental) conditioning learning thought to become more or less probable depending on consequences 2. Reinforcement– consequences that strengthen a response (increase probability of future response) 3. Positive– something added a. positive reinforcement– something pleasant added in attempt to strengthen behavior b. positive reinforcement best when continuous 4. Negative– something removed a. negative reinforcement– something unpleasant taken in attempt to strengthen behavior 5. Punishment– consequences that suppress future response a. positive punishment– something unp leasant added in attempt to weaken behavior b. egative punishment– something pleasant taken in attempt to weaken behavior 6. Extinction– no consequence given and behavior becomes less frequent 7. Skinner emphasized positive reinforcement in child rearing 8. Physical punishment best used in specific circumstances like†¦ a. administered immediately following act b. administered consistently following offense c. not overly harsh d. accompanied by explanation e. administered by otherwise affectionate person f. combined with efforts to reinforcement acceptable behaviors 9. Too little emphasis on role of cognitive processes C.Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory 1. Humans’ cognitive abilities distinguish them from animals– can think about behavior and anticipate consequences 2. Observational learning (learning from models) most important mechanism for behavior change 3. Classic experiment using â€Å"Bobo† doll showed that children could learn from mode l 4. Vicarious reinforcement– learner changes behaviors based on consequences observed being given to a model 5. Human agency– ways in which humans deliberately exercise control over environments and lives self-efficacy– sense of one’s ability to control self or environment 6.Reciprocal determinism– mutual influence of individuals and social environments determines behavior 7. Doubt the existence of stages 8. View cognitive capacities as maturing over time 9. Learning experiences differentiate development of child of same age D. Strengths and Weaknesses of Learning Theory 1. Learning theories are precise and testable 2. Principles operate across the life span 3. Practical applications 4. Doesn't show that learning actually causes observed developmental changes 5. Oversimplifies development by focusing on experience and downplaying biological influences V. Cognitive developmental theoryA. Jean Piaget Swiss Scholar Greatly Influences Study of Intelle ctual Development in Children 1. Emphasizes errors in thinking (wrong answers) 2. Argues that cognitive development is qualitative in nature B. Piaget's Constructivism 1. Constructivism– active construction of knowledge based on experience 2. Stage progression due to interaction of biological maturation and environment C. Stages of Cognitive Development (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operations) 1. Sensorimotor stage a. birth to age 2 b. deal with world directly through perceptions and actions . unable to use symbols 2. Preoperational stage a. ages 2 to 7 b. capacity for symbolic thought c. lack tools of logical thought d. cling to ideas they want to be true 3. Concrete operations stage a. ages 7 to 11 b. use trial-and-error strategy c. perform mental operations in their heads d. difficulty with abstract and hypothetical concepts 4. Formal operations stage a. ages 11 and later b. think abstractly and can formulate hypotheses c. can devise â€Å"g rand theories† about others D. Strengths and Weaknesses 1. Pioneer with long lasting impact 2. Many of Piaget’s concepts accepted (e. g. children active in own development) 3. Influential in education and child rearing practices 4. Too little emphasis on motivation and emotion 5. Questioning of stage model 6. Underestimated children’s cognitive skills VI. Contextual/Systems Theories A. Changes Over Life Span Arise from Ongoing Transactions and Mutual Influences Between Organism and Changing World No single end-point to development B. Vygotsky: A Sociocultural Perspective 1. Russian psychologist who took issue with Piaget 2. Sociocultural perspective– development shaped by organism growing in culture 3. Tools of a culture impact development . Cognitive development is social process 5. Children co-construct knowledge through social dialogues with others 6. Paid too little attention to biology C. Gottlieb: An Evolutionary/Epigenetic Systems View 1. Some conte xtual/systems theories have arisen from work by evolutionary biologists a. influenced by Darwin’s work b. genes aid in adapting to the environment 2. Ethology– study evolved behavior of species in natural environment a. birdsongs in the wild b. species-specific behavior of humans 3. Evolutionary/epigenetic systems perspective of Gottlieb a. evolution has endowed us with genes . predisposition to develop in certain direction genes do not dictate, make some outcomes more probable c. Gottleib’s emphases: i. activity of gene ii. activity of neuron iii. organism’s behavior iv. environmental influences d. interaction between genes and environmental factors e. instinctive behaviors may not be expressed if environmental conditions do not exist i. duckling vocalizations ii. baby rats seeking water f. normal development is combination of normal genes and normal early experience g. experience can influence genetic activity and change course of development i. ice che wing and impact on genes ii. lactose tolerance higher in cultures with dairy farming tradition h. difficult to predict outcome (multifactor influence) i. view people in continual flux and change is inevitable D. Strengths and Weaknesses 1. Complex like human development 2. Cannot predict outcome (wide range of paths) VII. Theories in Perspective A. Stage Theorists: Freud, Erikson, Piaget 1. Development guided in universal direction 2. Influenced by biological/maturational forces B. Learning Theorists: Watson, Skinner, Bandura 1. Emphasis on influence of environment 2.Deliberate steps taken by parents to shape development C. Contextual and Systems Theorists: Vygotsky, Gottleib 1. Focus on dynamic relationship between person and environment 2. Focus on impact of both biology and environment 3. Potential exists for qualitative and quantitative change 4. Developmental pathways depend on interplay of internal and external influences D. Changing World Views 1. Our understanding of human d evelopment is ever changing 2. Contextual/systems theories prevalent today 3. Less extreme, but more complex positions  © Copyright 2006 Thomson. All rights reserved.

Causes Of Success Of Renaissance And Western Europe

Name: Class Name: Professor Name: Date: Causes of the Success of Renaissance in Western Europe The Renaissance was that time that still acts as a transition of the world from being an underdeveloped place to a place of enlightenment and knowledge. The developments made during the Renaissance in political, cultural, social, artistic, and educational arenas laid the groundwork for modern day technological and social developments. World dynamics shifted very swiftly from the Middle Ages to the age of enlightenment. People started realizing the worth of developing intellectually which is why the whole of western Europe got influenced by this movement that gave a futuristic and modernistic outlook for years to come. It is human nature to keep advancing and this is one major reason the Renaissance was able to transform Europe. A strictly economic perspective makes humans want to advance on the basis of three factors-preferences, beliefs, and rationality (Robson 89). This is the basic reason Renaissance can be said to occur in th e first place, and flourish to please human nature. This research will focus on some ideological causes for the success of the Renaissance period as evident from examining the contributions of some of the major names of the Renaissance that changed the face of modern day education and arts. These include Dante Alighieri, commonly referred to as Dante, Giovanni Boccaccio, and Giorgio Vasari. The first two are mainly poets and philosophers but theirShow MoreRelatedRenaissance Music : The Renaissance1368 Words   |  6 Pages Renaissance Music The Renaissance is a historical time from 1425 to 1600. The name Renaissance formed in the 14th century. The renaissance meant rebirth and at that time period that s what occurred in the classical period. The era started in Italy and spread throughout Europe. Renaissance music set a path going into an era of changes and innovations. In this period of arts were influenced by developments in politics, economics, religion and technology The renaissance had growth withRead MoreAp Euro Kagan, Western Heritage 8th Edition. Ch. 9 and 10 Study Guide1509 Words   |  7 PagesAP Euro Ch.9/10 Review Questions Kagan Western Heritage 8th edition Chapter 9 (1300-1527) 1. What were the underlying and precipitating causes of the Hundred Years’ War? What advantages did each side have? Why were the French able to drive the English almost entirely out of France? The first underlying and precipitating cause of the Hundred Years’ War was that England and France were too closely proximate emergent territorial powers. Another cause of the Hundred Years’ War was that EdwardRead MoreRenaissance Art : A New System Of Astronomy, Exploration Of The Natural World1217 Words   |  5 PagesRenaissance Art is a large portion of the art we look at and get inspired by today, but where and who did it come from? 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